Alcohol and Society Essay Essay

Throughout history, society has engaged in taking substances such as alcohol, that alter our physical being or our psychological state of mind. There are many experiences and pressures that force people to feel like they have to drink in order to cope with life, but for many alcohol is a part of everyday life, just like any other beverage. Alcohol is introduced to us in many ways, through our family, television, movies, and friends’. These â€Å"sociocultural variants are at least as important as physiological and psychological variants when we are trying to understand the interrelations of alcohol and human behavior†#. How we perceive drinking and continue drinking can be determined by the drinking habits we see, either by who we drink with, or the attitudes about drinking we learn over the years. The chances of people drinking in ways that can harm others and ultimatley themselves can be seen by the correlation of educational lessons, cultural beliefs and the usage of alcohol. Looking at all the possibilities, the complex question we must ask is why do people drink? Is it through their defiance of law, the accessibility of alcohol, teachings of others or the values set in place in their society? Every society has its own views on how the consumption of alcohol should be handled and regulated. Their differences create a trickle effect of how it is used, and is distinctive to that culture or society. Many cultures drinking habits go hand in hand with religion, and social customs. Drinking alcohol is in many cases a part of extensive learned tradition, where people pride themselves with their ability to hold their liquor. In countries where alcohol is part of the â€Å"norm†, the outcomes of drinking habits or the effects of alcohol are much different, â€Å"A population that drinks daily may have a high rate of cirrhosis and other medical problems but few accidents, fights, homicides, or other violent alcohol-associated conflicts; a population with predominantly binge drinking shows the opposite complex of drinking problems†#. It has been observed that cultures with rich traditions and acceptance of alcohol use tend to deal less with the typical alcohol related problems, compared to the cultures who treat alcohol as an escape or something that will make them better in the eyes of others. In these societies, like the U. S. alcohol hasn’t always been present and grown to be accepted through rich tradition. The amount of regulations and negative views on drinking in the U. S. has led to abuse and deviancy, creating a high frequency of alcoholics. People drink in many ways, for many different reasons. We drink socially, to gain acceptance into a group. We drink alone to ease stress, to cope with our problems, or we â€Å"drink because we like the taste or how it makes us feel†#. Often drinking is a learned behavior, starting out as a social drinker; you quickly become psychologically and physically dependent. When someone reaches this stage they are often classified as an alcoholic. To an alcoholic, drinking becomes a compulsion; they cannot stop themselves from having another drink, like a social drinker can. In many cases alcoholics don’t even have to drink continuously in order to be an alcoholic. One the problems of alcohol addiction is that it’s something that doesn’t just effect the individual but it effects, friends and family as well. Spouse abuse, child abuse and dysfunctional family relationships can all be influenced by alcohol abuse. In the United States alone the drinking patterns throughout history have changed dramatically to reflect the times. Starting out in colonial times the usage of alcohol use was seen as a blessing, and harmless to society. It was acceptable to drink while at work, and during social events, however drinking alone was highly frowned upon. Many early religions believed that alcohol was a gift from God, â€Å"man should partake of God’s gift with out wasting or abusing it†#. To enhance and encourage the social aspect of drinking, Taverns were built as a meeting hall where people of all ages could go and drink; it was considered the center of social life. Even children in colonial times were coaxed into drinking as soon as they were old enough to drink from a glass. Parents in this time hoped to teach the children at this young stage to drink in small amounts so that later in life they wouldn’t misuse alcohol. Later on in the 19th century, the Taverns of colonial times eventually all changed into the more modern Saloon. A place where all men could gather to get away from their families. During the existence of the saloon the Christian church began to see the consumption of alcohol as an evil, and no longer accepted alcohol as the universal drink of the church. Today the effects of history are seen through the defiance of alcohol use and the probing reverence to abstinence, which is rarely practiced, but when it is, it goes largely un-respected by society. In many cultures through history, alcohol has been viewed to have positive influences in society. Its usage has been seen to enhance social abilities within a group, as well as increased relaxation and enjoyment in the company of others. The usage of alcohol extends further than social aspects, until the early 20th century alcohol had been used in medicinal practices and was a key ingredient in most over-the-counter medicines. Supporters of early alcohol use argued, â€Å"It gave courage to the soldier, endurance to the traveler, foresight to the statesman, and inspiration to the preacher. It sustained the sailor and the plowman. The trader and the trapper†#. In the United Kingdom for example, society favors drinking so much that bars in that country now attract people of both genders, through new legislations in that county social drinking is widely accepted, but heavy drinking and alcohol related problems remain in disapproval. To many, alcohol use is an aspect of their way of life, that if left out could possibly change their culture forever. Many people would argue that drinking is a learned behavior, however everyone learns about alcohol differently, causing different cultural and social views of acceptance. The U. S. treats alcohol as a substance that our children should never come in contact with. In many other societies it is believed that the earlier you encourage drinking among children the better drinking practices they will retain through out their lives. Italian culture allows their young to drink moderate amounts of alcohol as a part of everyday life, at family gatherings it is seen as a normal and natural food. Jewish culture treats alcohol as a sacred part of everyday life; their religion and rich culture create a continuous relationship with alcohol. Compared to the U. S. , there are many countries that do allow their youth to drink to start drinking at a young age, and they have seen decreased problems with violence, vandalism and drinking and driving. Children outside of the U. S. , who are introduced to alcohol as a part of their regular family life, learn to drink more responsibly and drink moderately while still young. Alcohol has been a part of Western Civilization for over 25 centuries. Over time there have been many governmental controls placed on the usage of alcohol in the U. S. When the need for control over this substance was demanded by a large part of the American population, the government responded with the Prohibition of alcohol in 1920. Largely influenced by religion and the temperance movement, many thought this measure would eradicate the use of alcohol. What they didn’t know was that laws couldn’t always be enforced. What did erupt out of Prohibition was an even higher demand for alcohol, which was met by the Mafia, who made millions by selling alcohol on the Black Market. Often time’s fear of something can be our biggest downfall. It effects our ability to move forward, to accept things the way they are and have the confidence that everything is going to be all right. When something such as alcohol is defined as bad or harmful to us, it becomes a psychological battle, to find good in it. So in our country the fear of alcohol gives it a negative image, it is rejected as a normal part of behavior because of its destructive effects, through peoples’ abuse of the substance. The negativity of alcohol in our country out weighs any potential to look at it the way other societies do, and change our views on it. â€Å"When, alcohol related problems do occur, they are clearly linked with the modalities of drinking, and usually also with values attitudes, and norms about drinking†#. We are stuck knowing, thinking and feeling the way we do about alcohol because that is what has been driven into our minds. If our society could look outside the box, we could see the effects of tradition, family and culture that have totally transformed how alcohol is used and seen in other societies. Lessons can be learned from the experiences of other countries but it would take a long time to effect them into our society and tradition. We have tried to educate our youth on the dangers of alcohol and problems associated with it. Through educational programs we have tried to teach them to stay away from this so-called drug, that we have enabled ourselves to label as dangerous. These programs such as D. A. R. E. have failed in every attempt because the information that is taught often contradicts beliefs and conduct seen everyday by these children in our society. Understanding that we have failed as a society in how we treat alcohol, leaves no question that we should look to evidence from other cultures and humble ourselves that our existing argument on alcohol needs to end. â€Å"It is apparent that certain ways of thinking and acting in respect to alcohol, ways that are consistently associated with drinking problems, might fruitfully be rejected, while others; those that correlate with unproblematic drinking might well be fostered. â€Å"# Our attempts of labeling alcohol as a â€Å"dirty drug,† a substance to be despised and shunned should change to â€Å"choose or not to choose. † We must teach children the modern practices of moderation, respect for alcohol and that you do have a choice in what you do. Damaging social and personal consequences stemming from alcohol abuse are not completely related to the prevalence of alcohol consumption, we know that cultural, historical and social comparisons truly show that alcohol has many uses, both good and bad. However, cultures that have a predisposition for low rates of alcohol abuse are more comfortable about the consumption of alcohol, and the behaviors seen as a result from drinking. These responsible drinking habits are taught at a young age as well as teaching that alcohol is a controllable a force that can offer pleasure and positive social experiences through implementation of successful cultural controls on drinking. Knowing how our society in the U. S. views the usage of alcohol, I believe that we should seriously reflect on the practices of the above mentioned cultures, and formulate a drinking model for alcohol that suits our culture and traditions, that gives a positive perspective on alcohol. This model would allow us to improve our way of living, teaching responsibility and respect, qualities needed in every aspect of life. Notes 1. Heath, D. B. (1982). â€Å"Sociocultural Variants in Alcoholism,† Encyclopedic Handbook of Alcoholism. New York: Gardner Press: 38 2. Heath, 429 3. Varley, C. (1994). Life Issues-Alcoholism. New York: Marshal Cavendish. 4. Rorabaugh, W. J. (1979). The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press: 26 5. Levine, H. G. (1995). â€Å"The Good Creature of God and the Demon Rum,† International Handbook on Alcohol and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press: 115 6. Heath, 121 7. Heath, 436. Bibliography Claypool, J. (1981). Alcohol and You. New York: Franklin Watts- An Impact Book. Dolmetsch, P, and Mauricette, G. (Ed). (1987). Teens Talk About Alcohol and Alcoholism. New York: Dolphin Book. Heath, D. B. (1982). â€Å"Sociocultural Variants in Alcoholism,† Encyclopedic Handbook of Alcoholism. New York: Gardner Press. Hornik, E. L. (1974). You and your Alcoholic Parent. New York: Association Press. Levine, H. G. (1995). â€Å"The Good Creature of God and the Demon Rum,† International Handbook on Alcohol and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Rorabaugh, W. J. (1979). The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press. Varley, C. (1994). Life Issues-Alcoholism. New York: Marshal Cavendish.

Diagnostic Control Systems: Implementing Intended Strategies Essay

The article authors, Johnson and Kaplan looks at how management accounting has evolved over the years and within different industries and how those management accounting reports have failed to help mangers make decisions to reduce costs and improve productivity. The authors state that contemporary trends in competition, technology, and management demand major changes in the way organizations measure and manage costs and how they evaluate short- and long-term performance. The article takes a look at management accounting over varies periods of times and specific industries and discusses how at each period of time the management reports were used. For example, in the 19th century after the Industrial Revolution it was observed that gains could be earned by managing a hierarchical organization. The management system at the time focused on conversion costs and produced only summary results. Fast-forward a several years to roughly around 1925, we see that the management accounting practices that are practiced today had been developed by that time. They had been evolved to serve the control and informational needs of managers of increasingly complex and diverse organizations. As time progressed it is not until after the 1920s that the authors believe that evolution of management accounting did not keep the pace with the improvement in corporations’ product and process technologies. It is stated that the systems today provide misleading targets for managerial review. They fail to provide the relevant set of measures that reflect the technology, products, processes and competitive environments. Which has resulted in what they consider as today’s problems: distorted product costs, delayed and overly aggregated process control information, and short-term performance measures that do not reflect the increases or decreases in the organization’s economic position. Johnson and Kaplan conclude by stating that if companies fail to make modifications in their management accounting systems, their ability to be effective and efficient global competitors will be inhibited. Diagnostic Control Systems: Implementing Intended Strategies In chapter four, Robert Simons introduces what is known as the third lever of control: diagnostic control systems. These systems are defined as the backbone of traditional management control, and are designed to ensure predictable goal achievement. The other levers (Belief systems, Boundary Systems and Interactive Control Systems) are mentioned in the reading as well, however the focus of chapter four is to discuss the diagnostic control systems. He highlights three features that distinguish the control systems: (1) the ability to measure the outputs of a process, (2) the existence of predetermined standards against which actual results can be compared, and (3) the ability to correct deviations from standards. The chapter goes on to describe critical performance variables. Those variables as defined are those factors that must be achieved or implemented successfully for the intended strategy of the business to work. The term, â€Å"key success factors† can also be used. In which effectiveness and efficiency are the prime criteria for the selection measures used in diagnostic control systems to ensure that they are managed both effectively and efficiently. Kaplan and Norton uses the term â€Å"balanced scorecard† to describe a systematic way of analyzing critical performance variables and measures associated with intended strategies. This method allows managers to use measures from each of the four categories (Financial, Customer, Internal Business and Innovation & Learning Measures) simultaneously to guide their business toward the desired goals. The author conveys the message that equipping management systems to control strategy is not an easy task. Managers have to understand their strategies and be able to recognize the relationships between strategic and operating decisions and how they affect the bottom line.

I need some one speciliezed in linguistics Research Proposal

I need some one speciliezed in linguistics - Research Proposal Example It is the language of scientific publications as well. There is a general belief that many people will read the publication if it is in English. Tuhus-Dubrow (2002) in the article "World's Languages are Fast Disappearing," states that â€Å"English has run rampant across the globe ... people want to speak English, because it is the language of advertising, blockbuster movies, and pop music, as well as a vital tool for success.† Because of this widespread acknowledgement of English as a global language, many parents make sure that their children learn English over their own minority language; they believe it will give their children an advantage in the global world (Grimes, 2003). Parents in Saudi Arabia put great efforts in order to educate their children in the English language and persuade them to apply for higher studies in western countries. This research paper attempts to find answers to the following questions: What are the attitude, behaviour, motivation and practices o f Arab parents in training their children to learn English language? Why do many of them want their children to study English? Which social class is more particular in giving training to their children in English language? And why? Do their attitudes, behaviour, practices, and motivation reflect on their children's achievement? What is the relation between the English language and language globalization? It has been found that children at younger age learn any foreign language much easier than adults and adolescents. Studies show that language learning is greatly influenced by learning environment. Child’s interest and motivation depends on the amount of parental support and care they receive. Even though the parents themselves are not well versed in the English language, they can create interest in their young ones by enrolling them in language learning. They need to be constantly encouraged and praised however small their achievement in learning the language is. Objectives The main objective of the study is to check the influence of the English language over Arabic, especially among Saudi parents and their children. The study aims to find the importance Saudi parents give to the English language training for their wards in the modern situation and the factors leading to it. In addition to this, the study examines the attitude of both parents and children in learning the English language. Also the study aims at pin-pointing the social class interested in the English language training. It also looks into the parental attitude of sending their children to western nations for English training during summer vacations or giving education in International schools over private or public schools. The study analyses Saudi parents’ attitude toward English learning by their children. What are the motivations they have behind giving the English language training to their children? The study also aims at finding out what learning environment and facilities t he parents provide for their children for making English learning effective. It also examines the attitude and level of interest children show in learning their own language once they start learning the English language. The study also analyses the relationship of the English language to language globalization. 3. Problem Statement To find out the attitude of parents towards English learning by their children, the reasons behind being motivated to teach the children the English lan

The impact of the Financial Crisis on Banking Industry Research Paper

The impact of the Financial Crisis on Banking Industry - Research Paper Example In 2009, the â€Å"Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation† failed almost 305 banks. Even though this is comparatively small proportion of the entire banks, the tendency that this reveals is the actual reason for concern. This amount is greater than 12 times the amount, 25, which failed in the year 2008. Among these banks which were forced to shut their doors in 2008 was â€Å"Washington Mutual†; the leading bank to date which has been compelled to shut their doors. Nevertheless, they were capable to get away total amount of liquidation by being engrossed by â€Å"JP Morgan Chase†. This benefited the â€Å"JP Morgan Chase† since this gave them a trail on the west-shore which they had been requesting for some time (Bexley et al., 2011, p. 2). Due to these negative externalities, the problem of credit crunch has been generated which has reduced the amounts of investment and investable funds across the globe. Also the problem of subprime lending has also been a ggravated in global economies, mainly in US which has reduced the banking transactions in the country (Bexley et al., 2011, p. 6). ... to this high level of inflation, consumers are not getting capable of purchasing costliest goods and services and hence business organisations which are engaged in production of these goods and services are leaving the industry. Again this is reducing the level of income in the country and hence the level of demand for necessary goods and service. The Fed is expecting to have a subdued in the next few years because of weaker level of real economic activities prevailing in the country. But the Fed is expecting that the rate of inflation will remain unresponsive in newt few years due to the fact the American economy is still under the curse of financial and economic crises situations (Minutes of the Federal Open Market Committee, 2011, p. 1). Future solutions: Again, it is expected by the researchers that the rate of interest will remain comparatively low as well as stable in the next year following the rapid growth of developing countries. This increasing growth of countries such as I ndia and China will increase the volume of trade in favor of USA. Also the corporate bonds and the share market are expected to be much stable in the next year than it is now. These aspects are expected to improve the performance of the banking sector in the US (Elwell, 2011, p. 4). The rate of interest on â€Å"91-Day Treasury Bills† in the next year is expected to be 0.2% and that of â€Å"10-year treasury notes to be 3.5% (Fiscal Year 2013: Analytical Perspective: Budget of the U.S. Government, 19). These improvements in the economic variables of the country is expected to create significant amount of positive effect on the increment of the level of private as well as public consumption spending of the country. Consumption spending is most likely to remain the most crucial part of the

Discussion Board Question for criminal justice Assignment - 3

Discussion Board Question for criminal justice - Assignment Example . (Saferstein, 2011). The assessment of bloodstain pattern also limits the need to collect a lot of redundant blood sample for DNA testing, emphasizing importance of blood patter observation. (Ramsland, n.d). Shape of blood stain can help predict the tool used. For example, it may be deduced that it was a blunt instrument used just by shape and distribution of blood patterns.(Dave, 2014).Features of the pattern can hint to the kind of object that formed it and the least number of blows delivered by the object. For instance, the characteristic spurts present in an arterial spray spatter are created by the ongoing pumping of blood from an arterial injury. ( Saferstein, 2011) Surface texture can significantly affect the outline of bloodstain. The texture of the surface is related with the disruption of a blood drop on contact with the surface. .( Saferstein 2011).Smooth surface for instance glass, will provide a stain with clean edges and shapes of proper geometric ratio.  A rough surface on the other hand, say concrete, will break the surface tension irregularly and hence produce a star burst. .( Saferstein, 2011) Nevertheless, circular blood drops imply that the murder was moving way at a slow speed, but spiny edges imply the murderer might have took off running.( Dave,2014) Various types of bloodstains show how the blood was projected from the body and information like type of injury, order in which the wounds were received, and how far the blood drops fell before hitting the surface where they were found could be obtained. (Ramsland,n.d ) Flow pattern of the blood stains can also give information. For instance, if the pattern suggests the flow was interrupted, it may be helpful in assessing the sequence and time past between the flow and its interruption. . ( Saferstein ,2011) Moreover, because the direction of flows is caused by

Segmenting markets Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Segmenting markets - Essay Example Factor Analysis is a statistical tool that helps in understanding variables, or factors among the correlated and observed variables. It is mostly used to determine the variations in a larger number of groups by identifying the small number of factors within the large number of a particular group The first step is to select a method for factor analysis. There are two methods while conducting a factor analysis which are known as exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. Exploratory factor analysis is a technique for factor analysis which is often used for a larger set of variable. If the goal of a researcher is to identify the relationship with the measured variable then he should opt for the exploratory factor analysis. This method would help a researcher if no prior assumption or theory is made on the relation of the factors. However, in confirmatory factor analysis the variables are determined with the relation of prior assumptions or theory which aims to see if it meets the expectation as it was predicted. This method is selected when a social research is conducted. The simplification of a factor analysis is often interpreted by a method known as rotation which makes the output more understandable for the researcher. Rotation is the next step involved in factor analysis. The pattern of loadings in rotation works differently on each variable, the loading of each variable that has extracted factors are maximized while it minimizes the loading for other factors. There are five methods of rotation in which varimax, equamax and quartimax are orthogonal rotations whereas promax and direct oblimin are oblique rotations. The rotation of a particular variable mostly depends on a person if he thinks that the factors that are underlined should be related or not. If factors are considered to be independent then the author suggests that a person should use orthogonal rotation methods whereas if factors have chances to correlate then it is required to a dopt direct oblimin which is an oblique rotation (Gorsuch, 1983). Labeling a factor is the next step which is an art of segmentation in which a factor is named which best describes the particular factor. The most common and appropriate technique is to name the highly ranked or the top one or two factors on the list. It is labeled on the basis of its characteristics, for example factor one can be labeled as price conscious whereas factor two can be labeled as quality conscious (Rummel, 1970). In the final step, interpretation is been made to assess the validity of factors outlines previously. In this step, four types of validity methods are used namely, content validity, concurrent validity, predictive validity, and construct validity. Content validity intends to measure the intended or the desired area which is associated with the theme of the research. Construct validity intends to assess the factors which involve the testing of hypothesis to which the researcher was trying to meas ure. Concurrent validity is the method in which scores are correlated with some other variables and then it is justified. In predictive validity method, a test is used to determine or justifying the theoretical outcomes which were expected. These steps are used for the purpose of finding a correlation between variables (Gorsuch, 1983). 2. Cluster Analysis: Cluster analysis is a statistical technique which helps in assorting of ‘mountain’ of information into neat files by forming a cluster or a group in which variables are similar to one another. It helps in creating subgroups which becomes more manageable than previously dealing with the individual variable. Similar to factor analysis, it is used to determine the relationship of variables between other variables. The first step involved in cluster analysis is the assigning of similar variables to their respective

Subverting the Processes of Peer Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Subverting the Processes of Peer Review - Essay Example Hwang was indeed a brainy researcher. He had efficiently kept his collaborators, manipulating them with their own personal motives. With that, he had managed to maintain his established credibility within the span of his research and prominence. Hwang was a national hero in South Korea and was rose to fame after claiming a series of remarkable breakthroughs in the field of stem cell research. Despite the notable absence of any of the scientific data needed to probe the validity of his research, Hwang's several claims were well received by the South Korean media and public. They have been so attracted with his claim of immeasurable economic prospect that his research was said to be promising (Wikipedia, 2008). With such renowned standing, he maintained and expands his research team. Building it in a rigid hierarchical structure had made him extremely dominant among his researchers regardless of their titles. His collaborators worked for his fraud and some had even so consistent with their support despite the arousal of controversies. With their firm determination to back him up, he had managed to publicize his said noble study. Dr. Roh head of Seoul fertility clinic had agreed to collaborate with Hwang despite the anomalous way of obtaining the egg cell from paid donors and two of their junior researchers. When the controversy was exposed he even publicly admits the deed claiming that he was solely responsible and Hwang was unaware of the said anomaly. This was to cover up despite the fact that Hwang himself had distributed egg donation consent forms to his researchers and even personally escorted one to the MizMedi Hospital to take the egg extraction procedure. All these fabrication were for the assured credit on what had been thought as a promising research. In Hwang's laboratory, every order must be followed having him as a supervisor. Two of his junior researcher had even donated their eggs despite the inconvenience of the procedure. At a point, one of the researcher/donor in her attempt to disclose the fact had retracted her statement due to alleged coercion. Moreover, his team obediently follows when Hwang told them to make it look as if there were 11 stem cells when not even half that number was there. These were with the knowledge that they would have credit on the published discovery. On the contrary, all their efforts in the research would be wasted if they would disclose the fact. After having acquired a celebrity status in South Korea, Hwang actively sought to establish every possible tie to political and

Evaluation of Aphrodite Greek Restaurant in Greater London Assignment

Evaluation of Aphrodite Greek Restaurant in Greater London - Assignment Example   A deferential Maitre d’ guides the customer to a table or the Bar, either directly or through the adjacent cloakroom. The front half of the cloakroom is divided into two by a lit-up wall, which has the figurines of the twelve Greek Gods in bas-relief, six on each face. Entrance from there into the restaurant is through a red-curtained doorway or into the bar through a blue-curtained doorway. Food is served both indoors and on the terrace, weather permitting. The terrace features Doric columns and a fountain around a statue of Aphrodite, â€Å"the Greek goddess of Love, Beauty and Eternal Youth†, epitomizing the Restaurant complex. The new tables and chairs have an elegant marble look about them. Crisp Greek linen is used, with embossed The comprehensive Menu Card is elegantly designed with bold lettering; items and prices can be read easily. It lists dishes from across the country, like Moussaka (stuffed tomatoes, aubergines or paprika), maridaki (fish) and Britzoles (chops). A separate barrel-shaped card provides the equally comprehensive Wine List. Lighting is automatically controlled to maintain a fixed luminosity. The walls feature discreet Hellenic art. The non-slip floor is dark brown wood that pales inwards into cream-colored marble. The Centre-piece is a Harp which provides mellifluous live music, reminiscent of the Seas around Greece. sets. The well-stocked bar displays many types of the traditional Greek drink, Ouzo, with its strong aroma of aniseed. Though colorless, Ouzo turns milky white when ice or water is added.

Strategic Management Analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Strategic Management Analysis - Assignment Example The task of tour operators is to manage proper blend of aircraft, hotel, and tourism spots to make the holiday experience of customers easy, reasonable and expedient. They provide customers a variety of choices for spending on the holidays. In the year 1950, UK had first experienced inexpensive holiday package and since then this industry has become quite vast in the international market. Many big tour operator companies compete with each other for providing inexpensive holiday packages for family customer segment. In the study, the company which has been considered is easyJet. easyJet Holidays encompasses together the easyJet, an UK-based airline company and one of the foremost planners of accommodation in the UK lowcostbeds.com. The prime aim of easyJet Holidays is to provide immense ‘value for money’ beach holidays and city breaks to each destination’s of easyJet. easyJet Holidays offers a collection of around 100 destinations to select from and also provides a ir travels from around 13 airports of the UK with supreme choice, value as well as flexibility. easyJet Holidays also provides custom-made holiday tours along with availability of more than 10,000 hotels of quality in travel destinations arraying from 2 stars to 5 stars for its customers (easyJet Holidays, 2011). The package holiday is enormously popular for British tour creators. The package holiday industry provides people ranges of customised holiday packages to choose from (TUI UK Retail Limited, n.d.). 2.0 Task A 2.1 PESTEL Analysis PESTEL analysis helps to determine the external macro–environmental factors that can impact on the package holiday industry as a whole. 2.1.1 Political Aspects The political condition of any country can influence the laws of business. The political factors include the rules and laws of government and legal problems for operating a business. The political condition in the UK is relatively stable. Factors which can manipulate the package holida y industry are essentially the war and taxes on aviation among others. The UK government is currently trying to impose extra duty on aviation which can impact on the package holiday industry. easyJet, which is one of the biggest airline companies of the UK, had concluded that the hike of taxes on aviation can affect millions of customers and thus it can affect the profit of easyJet. The easyJet had already faced enormous tax increase for family trip i.e. tax had increased by 33%. It can affect the package holiday industry and the employment factor in the UK (Pierre, 2011). 2.1.2 Economical Aspects The economic factors can determine the purchasing power of people which affect the airline and package holiday companies’ offers. The economic condition includes the GDP growth rate, the

Justification program Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Justification program - Essay Example ven the most conscious commercial kitchen operations consider kitchen wastes as undesirable but inevitable part of the food expenditures that cost hospitals 4 to 8 percent in terms of food wastages (Chardoul & Coddington, 2012). In my investigation on the kitchen operations, I have noticed that nutrition and the presence of malnutrition are very vital in the overall treatment and care of our patients. However, I have observed that some food is not being eaten, that is, it is going to waste; as a result, it is not contributing to nutrition (Bauers, 2011). I think that all the food reduction measures especially the ones that affect the portion sizes, should be considered in consultation with the hospital nutritionists. I think inclusion of an effective Food Waste Program will be important in the kitchens, canteens and in the wards. After tracking down the sources of these organic wastes, I have noticed that most of them were emanating from pre and post consumer sources in the food areas. Note that some of these food wastes are in two categories: Non-perishable and unspoiled perishable foods (Perry, 2014). When serving, some patients may not report for meals and these foods are returned to the kitchen, but still considered as waste. As a result, managers start seeing volume of food waste generated and the costs to take the large bins away. I think that with the Food Waste Program, such wastage can be minimized by taking the food back to the kitchen. Nevertheless, I think I will like to make a distinction of the types of foods that can be taken back to the kitchen. Some types of food wastes have no value such as meat bones and onions. Conversely, there are those referred as valuable food wastes and I have observed that they are being generated both in service of the patients and at the canteens. For example, I h ave seen there are unserved food wastes, untouched food wastes and plate wastes. For the untouched food wastes, for example, comprise the plated food that has

Reading Reflection Essay Example for Free

Reading Reflection Essay At first, I think literacy has two meanings. The first meaning is culture or civilization and the second meaning is the ability to write and read. Both meaning are very similar, they are related to cultural knowledge. But in today’s society, literacy not only means culture. The concept of information literacy is people can effectively use and recognize the information. Besides, people can redefining and evaluate themselves in today’s information society. By reading Nunberg’s Teaching Students to Swim in the Online Sea, I think the concept of literacy is the discerning ability of people. Nowadays, much knowledge is deriving from Internet. These are second hand materials, not the primary sources. Some resources are not true. The way every people think of the Web is very different. It tests their discerning abilities. Like most people judge the credibility of a website by its outward. The information literacy means to be able to effectively identify, evaluate, and use the information. Also, the information literacy is expanding to include the map, media, and some electronic text. The information literacy has a deeper meaning. Students are highly familiar about website and search engine. They are effectively integrating the concept of information literacy into their learning programs. For me, I think the information literacy is good for college students. Because it can help them recognize when the information is needed, they have the ability to use the information. Literacy information is increasingly important in college life. Students faced with diverse, rich information every day. It was a big challenge for them.

The Strategic Finance Of Nestle Management Essay

The Strategic Finance Of Nestle Management Essay Nestlà ©s case study provides various examples which demonstrate a link between concepts drawn from pre-requisite modules. In my opinion, the link between First Mover Advantage model clarified in Strategic Management and the concept of Merger Acquisition covered in Strategic Finance are the most interesting. Figure 1.1 provides evidence found through the combination of these two concepts. Figure 1.1: Link between FMA and MA Evidences In the 20th Century, Nestle expanded through a series of acquisitions Nestle enters markets early-before competitors Acquires local firms when good opportunities arise Local brand for local market (Customization) 2/3 of Nestlà ©s growth generated from acquisitions FMA to Polish market Nestlà ©s Acquisition of Goplana Strategic Finance (NarayananNanda, 2004) First Mover Advantage Strategic Management (Johnson et.al, 2008) Merger Acquisition First Mover advantage is defined as the benefits generated for a firm that breaks in new markets first (Johnson et.al, 2008). The aim is to build a strong and sustainable position within the market as a way to defend potential competitive newcomers. Regarding Nestlà ©, the company enters emerging markets early before prospective competitors in order to build a significant position within them (Case Study, 2011). Thus the company is able to respond to any potential economic and population growth within emerging markets as well as to any possible upcoming competition. Mergers Acquisitions are strategic components dealing with buying or combining different companies that can assist the company to a speedy growth and improve its financial performance especially in the long term (NarayananNanda, 2004). During the 20th century, Nestlà © has undertaken a number of mergers and acquisitions, most notably the acquisition of Maggi in 1947, and thus has achieved to extend its geographic presence and product line (Case Study, 2011). Nestlà ©s acquisition of Goplana, is an interesting example of how its activities link with the companys long-term strategy of achieving first mover advantage within the Polish market (Case Study, 2011). The company was aiming to rush its development inside the market and maintain its authority. As such, Nestlà © retained the local staff and management of the acquired company and carefully adjusted the Goplana product line to better fit local opportunities (Case Study, 2011). Overall, acquisitions have been an important function for Nestlà ©s growth (Cook et.al, 2003). Alongside the MA group, the firm uses people from the finance sector as to assist the financial analysis of MA process (Cullinan et.al, 2003). This shows a clear link between Nestlà ©s FMA strategy and its MA activities. The firm maintains local companies with regional staff in local markets as to better customize its performance by creating share value and local expertise. Significantly, the success of Nestlà © in growing local companies also depends on the management development programmes that Nestlà © uses in order to come closer and train its local managers (Case Study, 2011). The process of entry for a company influences its ability to create value. According to Rahman Bhattacharyya (2003), Nestlà © has benefited by acting as a first mover in emerging markets. In terms of business development, the company sometimes involves mergers and acquisition activities as a way to grow and create value. Moreover, the reasons behind the MA activities can vary according to expectations. These may be the economies of scale, speed of entry, shareholder expectations and so on (Johnson et.al, 2008). Mergers and acquisitions are considered as one of the most dynamic ways in which a firm can recombine assets to create value (AhernWeston, 2007). By being the first mover into a market it may hides some drawbacks. Hill Jones (2009) noted that first movers have to tolerate large costs of pioneering that later movers may not. Also first movers may fall into substantial mistakes and risks as they lack experience, where second movers can enjoy knowledge and improvements through first movers gaffes. Similarly, MA is a particularly stressful practice for people involved within the new corporate culture and structure that can create ambiguity, anxiety and antipathy amongst companys staff (Appelbaum et al 2000). Such a fact can destroy the organisations value. 2nd Question: Does it make sense for Nestlà © to focus its growth efforts on emerging markets? Why? According to the Case Study (2011), by the early 1990s Nestlà © realised that it faced important challenges in maintaining its rate of growth within the markets of Western Europe and North America. Therefore, the company has turned its attention to emerging markets for further growth. Rapoport (1994) stated that developed markets are in the saturated phase of their life cycle where the competition is becoming higher, creating the war of price and substitution. Due to the economic downturn in such markets, people incomes have been characterised as incomplete and thus consumers are becoming more price conscious. Additionally, population indexes show that the population growth rate has been stagnated in contrast with the emerging world which is expected to expand by the year 2015 (Delegge, 2009). Delegge (2009) stated that emerging market economies are growing at a faster pace than those in developed countries. Furthermore, the researcher indicates that due to the combination of the global recession and the downturn of real estate prices, residents of emerging markets are expected to outperform both American and European consumers in terms of spending dynamics. Thereby Nestlà © translated emerging markets as an opportunity of higher growth returns with the promise of significant market share in the long term. In order to maintain its growth rate, it does make absolute sense for Nestlà © to focus its growth efforts on emerging markets. Goldman Sachs introduced the BRIC acronym (Brazil, Russia, India and China) that refers to the countries which are estimated for the next decades to be at a better stage than the current developed markets (ONeilStupnytska, 2009). Furthermore, they announced the concept of the Next Eleven (N-11) countries such as Nigeria, Mexico and Turkey which have the potential of becoming along with BRICs, the worlds dynamic markets by 2032 (ONeilStupnytska, 2009). Nestlà © has already been active in developing economies but it is therefore slight in contrast with their rival company Unilever. Moreover, the US food drink report (2010) notes that even with the greatest exposure in such markets; Unilever has experienced negative average revenue. This was due to its poor business management and incorrect decisions made over the last five years. Nestlà ©s core competencies and capabilities can enable the company to continue performing in emerging markets. Nestlà © has the ability to create brands quickly and in a sustainable fashion with products such as Nescafe, which also give strong focus on RD which enables the company to generate greater profits (Datamonitor, 2010). The company has the unique strength to customize global products with the same quality standards based on customer needs in the local market. Also, the firm has unmatched geographic existence in the emerging markets and so the company has the flexibility to deal with circumstances that sometimes cannot be easily predicted (SinghChild-Villiers, 2010). Applying those distinctive competencies, Nestlà © can earn greater returns and gain a sustainable advantage over its competitors. Rahman Bhattacharyya (2003) supported that unique performance within emerging markets can offer differential advantages for a first mover company. Following a first mover strategy, Nestlà © has benefited in many emerging markets as it was the first company which offered differentiated affordable products in local markets (RahmanBhattacharyya, 2003). Nestlà © aims to build a substantial position by achieving successful customer perceptions. Moreover, as the market grows and income levels rise, Nestlà © can potentially benefit by being responsive in such possible situations. Nestlà © can also take advantage of location economies, which are created from performing a value creation activity in the best location possible (HillJones, 2009). For instance, Nestlà © has opened a new factory in Nigeria which was dedicated in Popularity Positioned Products (Nestle, 2011a). This enabled the company to achieve lower costs and therefore facilitated the company to customizing its products in terms of price and accessibility. Thus, by enduring in such location economies, Nestlà © can gain a competitive place in each single location. 3rd Question: What is the companys strategy with regard to business development in emerging markets? Does this strategy make sense? From an organisational perspective, what is required for this strategy to work effectively? Regarding the business development in emerging markets, Nestlà ©s strategy was to enter markets before competitors in order to get the first mover advantage. The company aims to build a significant position within the developing world and thus be able to understand and satisfy the requirements of local population. Nestlà © acquires local firms when valuable opportunities arise during the entry process of the company into new emerging markets. A good example is that of 1995 where Nestlà © acquired Rossia, one of the leaders of chocolate manufacturer in Russia (Nestle, 2009). Nestlà © realised the chances that have been offered from the opening of Russian market and the increase of income levels, by making this new investment. In addition, there are times when Nestlà © enters emerging markets by building its own infrastructure from scratch, such as in China. Considering such a method, the company enters markets where no actual competitors exist and thus creates its own paths as a way to establish a market presence. Nestlà ©s product portfolio includes a strong presence of numerous key brands which focus on developing local marques for their respective markets thereby escaping its global brands for these customers (Urde, 1999). Overall, the company owns 8500 brands under its organisational umbrella and less than 10% are registered in more than one country. As an alternative way of trying to force a product in a market, the company customizes its product based on the needs of the local consumer and focuses at the extent of achieving economies of scale. At the moment, Nestlà © follows the strategy of adaptation to local conditions by using its in house PPP (Popularity Position Products) method which offers affordable products of high quality to meet the needs of emerging consumers (Nestle, 2010b). In the long-term, Nestlà © is aiming to supply the whole region with various products in order to realize economies of scale. For instance, as part of its long term business development strategy in Middle East, Nestle has established a network of factories in five countries. According to Porters generic strategies figure 1, Nestlà © adopts focus/niche strategy which reduce company risks and focus its marketing efforts on a limited number of market segments (Eldring, 2009). By adopting such a strategy, the company aims to build a substantial position in these particular markets so as to gain a competitive advantage using product innovation and marketing activities. Due to the fact that these economies are growing at a fast pace, Nestlà © is able to escape such segments and can offer a wider variety of upscale products such as mineral water and prepared foodstuffs (Case Study, 2011). (Source: Adopted from: www.mindtools.com/media/Diagrams/GenericStrategies) The successful presence of Nestlà © within developing markets verifies that the implication of Nestlà ©s strategy has been correctly applied. The corporate structure that Nestlà © comprises is closely related with the idea that all markets are equally important. Lavelle (2004) mentioned that Nestlà ©s strategies originated from a particular point and are independently applied from its local units. In order for the strategy to work effectively, it is necessary for the company to consider the following issues. Firstly, the firm must have available resources to invest in RD as well as the fast and effective production of innovative products (Hitt et.al, 2009). Nestlà © has established 6 RD centres in emerging markets that provide the ability to launch new products quickly and efficiently (BulckeSingh, 2011; Bauer, 2011). In order for the company to maintain its advantages over the competition it is imperative to continue focusing and investing on its RD activities. Secondly, the company must ensure that products can be customized at the requirements of any local market. Using the PPP model, Nestlà © is able to offer its products based on the requirements of the emerging consumers. Finally, Nestlà © must continue focusing on long-term investments in order to sustain a competitive advantage within the emerging markets. 4th Question: Through your own research on NESTLE, identify appropriate performance indicators. Once you have gathered relevant data on these, undertake a performance analysis of the company over the last five years. What does the analysis tells you about the success or otherwise of the strategy adopted by the company? Key Performance Indicators can be described as the main companys parts that assist to define and evaluate the success of a strategy in which the business is involved (Eckerson, 2009).Obviously, companys performance indicators can differ according to the reasons that have been composed for. Performance Indicators can be defined using numerous models, one of which is the Balanced Scorecard. The concept involves both qualitative and quantitative measures which evaluate the performance regarding the strategy chosen (Johnson et.al, 2008). Figure 4.1 applies the concept of Balanced Scorecard for Nestlà ©; an analysis has been carried out and can be seen below. Figure 4.1: Nestlà ©s Balanced Scorecard Financial Sales EBIT Net Profit NESTLE To be recognised as the world leader in Nutrition, Health and Wellness, trusted by all its stakeholders To be the reference for financial performance in its industry Internal Business Employees Factories Customer PPP Customer Acquisition Learning Innovation GLOBE-NCE RD (Source: Adapted from Johnson et.al, 2008 www.nestle.com) Firstly, the financial perspective can help the company understand its shareholders perception. Nestlà ©s EBIT grew steadily in the past 5 year period from CHF 13302 million to CHF 16194m in the year 2010, a growth of 21.7% (Nestle, 2011c). Significantly, 2009s EBIT was reported at CHF 15699m, an increase of just 0.15%. Moreover, the relative sales figures grew from CHF 98458m in 2006 to CHF 109722m in 20010, dropping at CHF107618m in 2009 after a successful year in 2008 where sales were at CHF109908m (Nestle, 2011c). In addition, the net profit margins showed a dramatic growth over the last five years from CHF9197m in 2006 to CHF34233m in 2010. Such a significant increase of net profit was due to the disposal of 52% of Alcons outstanding capital, which increased the profit (as a percentage of sales) from 9.7% in 2008 to 31.2% in 2010 year (Nestle, 2011c). Secondly, an internal analysis makes it possible to identify the level of operational procedures of Nestlà ©. During the year 2006, Nestlà ©s workforce involved 265 000 people, a number that increased in the year 2008 to 283000. Throughout 2009, the company cut about 5000 jobs resulting in a 281000 person workforce for 2010 (Nestle, 2011b). In addition, the company in 2009 was operating 449 factories 30 less from the year 2006 (Nestle, 2007b; 2010a). With respect to the third perspective of Learning Innovation, Nestlà © seems to have a strong focus throughout the years. Taking into consideration Nestlà ©s product innovation, it can be seen that the company is aiming for a deeper scope within this area. In 2006, Nestlà © spent about CHF 1.7 billion for its RD with a further increase in the following years (Nestle, 2007b). According to Nestlà © (2010a) spends about 1.9% of its annual revenues on its RD program which is considered as one of the key drivers of growth. In addition, the company combines two programs, GLOBE and NCE, which enable the reduction of production waste. Through these models, Nestlà © has achieved CHF 1 billion in 2008 which has further increased its efficiencies to a CHF 1.5 billion saving in 2009 (Nestle, 2010a). Finally, the consumer perspective is related to how customers perceive Nestlà ©. This can be measured through Nestlà ©s PPP model which aims to focus on low-income consumers around the world (Nestle, 2010b). Within 2007, the PPP performance involved 37 countries while in 2008 this number almost doubled to 70, generating an organic growth of 27% (Nestle, 2008). In 2009, PPP achieved sales of CHF 8.8bn with an organic growth of 12.7% (Nestle, 2010b). As a final point, 2010s concept encompassed 90 countries with sales figures of CHF 11bn and a double digit growth (Bulcke, 2011) Overall, the analysis of such indicators shows that Nestlà © has been able to improve its performance over the last five years. Despite the crisis triggered in 2008, Nestlà © is actually steady on a financial and non-financial scale. It seems that the long term strategy generates positive results for the short term as well. Giving focus on customization of local markets through the PPP concept, the company builds strong roots for the future, particularly in emerging markets as there are high growth potentials. 5th Question: How would you describe Nestlà ©s strategic posture at the corporate level; is it a pursuing, a global strategy, a multi-domestic strategy, an international strategy or a transnational strategy? Multinational companies use four main primary strategic postures when competing in the international environment. These are illustrated in figure 5.1. Such strategies depend on factors that are related to two types of pressures, Cost Reductions and Local Responsiveness (Hill, 2009). Figure 5.1: International Operations Strategies TRANSNATIONAL STRATEGY Move material, HR, ideas across national boundaries Economies of scale Location Economies Ex. Nestle, Kraft GLOBAL STRATEGY Standardized products Economies of scale Ex. Motorola, Intel High MULTIDOMESTIC STRATEGY Customization Different National Markets Ex. MTV, McDonalds INTERNATIONAL STRATEGY Import/export Minimal local customization Ex. Microsoft, PG Low High Low (Source: Adapted from Hill, 2009; AhlstromBruton, 2009) Figure 5.1, demonstrates the conditions under which each of the International Strategies are most appropriate. In addition, it shows some key characteristics of each strategy and gives examples of companies that follow different strategies. Regarding Nestlà ©s strategic posture, the company traditionally operated on a decentralized structure as a way to customize its product offerings to local needs, a key characteristic of a multi-domestic company. With the multi-domestic strategy, an organisation focuses on national differences and customizes its products by responding to the needs of the local preferences. This is in contrast to the global strategy where the company is able to improve its profits and development through lower costs that are derived from location economies and economies of scale (Hill, 2009). Due to the high competitive conditions that Nestlà © faced along with the need to obtain cost reductions, the company moved one step ahead by adopting a transnational strategy (Busco et.al, 2006). Such a strategy involves elements of global and multi-domestic strategies through which the company seeks to achieve both cost efficiencies and local customization (Hitt et.al, 2009). Child-Villiers, Head of Investor Relations, noted that Nestlà © is now integrated in a proactive and efficient way within the markets. He also supported that the company goes one step ahead as it links the globe with Nestlà ©s Continuous Excellence programme (BulckeSingh, 2011). Similarly, its competing company, Kraft Foods shifted to a transnational international strategy to better compete and grow (FoodProcessing.com, 2007). Within Nestlà ©, its national units are characterised as semiautonomous as they are able to involve decisions such as pricing and marketing in order to customize the products to local needs. Localization rather than globalization is the key characteristic of the companys idea which is also supported by the belief that there is not a single product for everyone (Nestle, 2007a). Although the authority of local subsidiaries are still decentralised, the firm has an integrated structure of seven strategic business units (SBUs) that manage advanced strategic decisions for key products ranks and achieve cost economies by centralizing operations such as acquisitions, production and RD (Hill, 2009). The company is divided into five divisions made up of Africa, America, Europe, Asia and Oceania. However, each zone assists in the development of the overall strategy but do not interrupt the local strategic decisions. It can be noted that Nestlà ©s activities and resources are neither centralised in the company, nor decentralised so that each subsidiary unit is able to operate separately in local market. Peter Brabeck-Letmathe, the CEO of Nestlà © noted that while the company comes closer with the consumer the more decentralized it is, he nevertheless supported that the more it is dealing with high level judgments, the more centralized decision making becomes (Wetlaufer, 2001, p.116) Moreover, following a transnational strategy it may sometimes require the company to adapt a more flexible tactical expansion and therefore involves a partnering with other organisations or exclusively owned acquisitions (DooleLowe, 2008). For instance, in 2003, Nestlà © formed a partnership with Colgate-Palmolive in order to develop a gum and candy product line. This was done in an attempt to capture a share of a market dominated by other competitors (Fox, 2005). 6th Question: Does this overall strategic posture make sense given the markets and countries that Nestlà © participates in? Why? Generally, Nestlà © operates almost in every country all around the world. Within the developed markets Nestlà © has a strong basis while in developing world the company involves a huge presence as they are potential markets for growth. According to Hill (2009), transnational strategy makes most sense in markets where the pressures for cost reductions and local responsiveness are high. Due to the high competitive levels and the financial complications that exist in developed markets, companies have to rethink about their strategies in order to survive (Hill, 2009). Then again, emerging markets involve low spending consumers with different preferences and tastes as well. It is therefore important for firms to respond at the cost pressures and the local requirements of the markets (Hill, 2009). Following this transnational structure, Nestlà © is able to customize global products in accordance with consumer requirements in the local market. This can be achieved through its autonomous local units which are responsible to understand the local needs and decisions related to marketing and distribution. Using an extensive market research, the company offers its products under the organisation umbrella and specializes on building brand names that are associated with local conditions (XieBoggs, 2006). Consequently, the company achieves the advantage of building customer loyalty and brand equity in local markets (Pass et.al, 1994). Allowing the subsidiaries to modify their packaging and distributions channels to meet local needs is a further benefit for Nestlà ©. In instance, Nestlà © and Mars in UK have combined their confectionery deliveries to Tesco, as a way to reduce as much possible trucks from Britains roads (IGD, 2010). This had a result to reduce both environmental and distribution costs. Since the early 1990s Nestlà © UK has been recycling its packaging as a way to reduce the amount of packaging used (IGD, 2008). The company decreased not only the costs of packaging but also its transportation costs since less Lorries are required. Regarding Nestlà ©s strategic posture, the companys subsidiaries within emerging markets have achieved to reap previous learning and ideas that have been used in developed markets (BulckeSingh, 2011). It seems that the company has succeeded to successfully transfer capabilities, skills and core competences in these markets. Hill (2009) supported that a transnational enterprise must give strong attention on flexibility by exploiting an information flow among the organisation and its local units. Thus, the key characteristic of transnational strategy offered the ability for Nestlà © to achieve almost 40 billion of sales in emerging markets and a growth of 11.5% in 2010 year (BulckeSingh, 2011). This worldwide combination strategy allows Nestlà © to enjoy benefits of low cost through location economies and economies of scale (Ireland et.al, 2008). For instance, as part of its strategy in the Middle East region, Nestlà © has set up a network of factories in five countries with a prospect to supply the whole region, achieving at the same time economies of scale (Case Study, 2011). Through the integration of regional economic groupings the company is able to produce larger units which can supply entire areas, building at the same time competitive advantage (Nestle, 1999). Sometimes, the transnational strategy involves a complex structure which includes a potential danger of losing control. Under this circumstance the organisation involves problems of creating a practical and valuable organizational structure and it is therefore impossible to manage the strategy (Hill, 2009). According to Bartlett et.al (2010) in order avoid any risks the transnational strategy requires a balanced binary of decision making and not a choice of one or the other but of where, how, when. 7th Question: Is Nestlà ©s management structure and philosophy aligned with its overall strategic posture? The management structure and philosophy is well affiliated with Nestlà ©s overall strategic posture. Nestlà © provides cooperation between local autonomy and centralized decision making. Even that the authority to local subsidiaries is decentralised, the firm is organised into seven SBUs that involve in the overall strategy development. Thus the multinational firm focus on local responsiveness and global integration (BartlettGhosal, 2000). The companys structure is well matched with the concept of transnational strategy. The SBUs that Nestlà © performs around the world are responsible for top strategic decisions which have specific focus on particular product lines such as coffee and beverages (Parsons, 1996). In addition, these SBUs participate within the overall companys strategy where Cook et.al. (2003) noted that the acquisitions made from the SBUs are essential drivers of firms success. Beside that structure of SBUs, Nestlà © includes regional divisions in five key geographical zones (Case Study, 2011). In combination with SBUs, these regional organisations are also supporting the overall strategy and business development. It is also important to state the RD that Nestlà © operates which focus on the creativity and production of products that meet local requirements. The RD function involves 29 research groups within various countries around the world (Bauer, 2011). Beyond such structure, Nestlà © decentralized as the responsibility for market decisions is carried down to local units which are basically operate autonomously for various local judgments. Nestlà © supports the philosophy that there is no single product for everyone, which achieves to understand local preferences through its subsidiaries and thus develops tailored products that meet those tastes and habits. Figure 7.1: Nestlà ©s organisation chart (Source: Adopted from: www.Nestle.com) Following the above figure 7.1, it can be seen that Nestlà © operates within a global matrix structure. As it has been already stated above, Nestlà ©s structure centralizes in some operating decisions and at the same time decentralizes in cases of national operations. The company integrates its functional competencies and capabilities into local teams such as to successfully respond within the global marketplace (BulckeSignh, 2011). Thus using a global matrix structure the company is able to fulfil customer requirements from different geographical places (Ireland et.al, 2008). According to Hill (2009), a global matrix structure is highly recommended for an organisation which adopts transnational strategy in order to be effective implement. Since 2000, Nestlà © has developed its Global Business Excellence (GLOBE) approach with a prospect of simplifying its organisational process structure through an integrated knowledge system. The programme provides Nestlà ©s companies with similar plans, structures and best performance to integrate actions thru the entire organization and to support organizational strategy for business objectives (Johnson, 2005). Recently, the company reorganised its structure through the development of an additional programme known as NCE (Nestlà © Continuous Excellence). Through that method Nestlà © is able to reduce production waste by saving million tonnes of product material through know-how production such as recycling (Nestle, 2010c). Bulcke Signh (2011) noted that the combination of those two programmes, GLOBE and NCE, enable the company to drive cost-effective growth and outperform the market. Concluding, the idea behind those programmes was to reorganise the organisations structure as t o be linked with the overall strategy.

Analysis of the Hotel industry in UAE

Analysis of the Hotel industry in UAE Introduction The service sector to be precise is bound to expand further from the current standing due to huge global economic growth in the areas of travelling, hospitality, hotels and recreational services that defines the hotel industry. It is being observed that economic activities within the realms of the hotel industry also and the investment made in that regard is huge and booming. These factors foster the growth element of the hospitality industry. Above all, the increasing numbers of global travelers in the backdrop of tourism and its booming growth poised the way for the hospitality industry to benefit tremendously. The economic aspects and its consideration in that regard as far as activities encompassing the hospitality industry thus are flawless and immeasurable as far and growth factor is concerned and the economic aspects in that regard. But often we wonder as to what defines the hotel industry or let say, hospitality industry for that matter? In general hotel industry is a broad c ategory and includes the service industry at large covering the category of lodging, restaurant, recreation and many more. The hospitality industry on a global scale is a huge. There is high instance of economic activities going on within the global hospitality industry. Due to the growth in tourism, recreational services and lodging as well as food chains and increasing number of restaurants, the global domain of hospitality industry present a huge economic avenue for all kinds of opportunities, be it investment, financing or the factor which also drives the construction sector in the economy of the world. Above all, employment opportunities also are huge in the hotel industry on a global scale. (Economy-Watch) There is no doubt in that regard, since the hotel industry encompasses all features of the service sector. Summing it all up and when we focus our attention to the hotel/hospitality industry in UAE also we feel that there are many interesting details to research about, especially the growth component of UAE hospitality industry in the current schemes of things. Literature Review First and foremost it should be understood that the very idea of hotel industry in general is a playground of huge economic activities. As we can observe, international industry presents a refined form of globalization and its influence in almost all sector and industries. The significant part is that globalization has opened up an avenue and numerous opportunities for hotel industry to reap the benefit from. Global Hospitality Industry Hospitality to be correct is much broader in scope. Some people do have a misplaced understanding as to what is hospitality industry.   The general perception of hospitality means the realms of hotel and restaurant. This is not wrong or incorrect to be precise, however, hospitality industry and its scope is broader and includes all features of entertainment and other aspects that amount towards serving guest and reception of visitors with liberty and good will. (Clayton W. Barrows, 2008 , p. 4) According to scholars and observers, they are of the opinion that the global hospitality industry is bound for a major boom and growth, due to increase internationalization of businesses and the worldwide presence of variety of services in the backdrop of globalization and its impact. An economic aspect that covers the range of activities within the hotel industry also is garnering steam. (Yu, 1999 , p. 3) In the current scheme of things it is said by experts that the global hospitality industry is on a growth path. Demands in the industry as far as service components encompassing hotel industry also is huge, which further boost the growth element to the point that meeting the demand seems to pose many issue when viewed from a business perspective and as far as operation goes. (ErnstYoung, 2011) Nonetheless, it also should be understood that ‘hospitality is the very important component of the service industry in any of the country national economy.† (Yu, 1999 , p. 4) Speaking of the hotel industry, it should also be understood that the components which feature the hotel industry can be classified and divided into two main segments, namely (i) Entertainment area (ii) Accommodation and Lodging. (Economy-Watch) Entertainment Areas: in the Entertainment Area, the hospitality services includes, clubs, bars, restaurants, casinos, and other forms of entertainment such as event planning and the likes, which are some example mentioned herein. (Economy-Watch) Accommodation and Lodging: On a larger note though, Accommodation and Lodging area of the hotel industry includes houses for rent, hotel accommodation, resorts, serviced apartments and also extend its range to motels, which are a factor of attraction for traveler due to the cost factor and comfy accommodation on a first come, first serve basis. (Economy-Watch) Apart from these and within the components of the hotel industry in the global scale, the very object of tourism also finds a pale of consideration. The structure of tourism and its components to a great extent defines the very object of hospitality industry. What is all about tourism and is feature can be measured within the realms of its components that includes providing tourist with comfy accommodation when it comes to their stay be it hotel, motel, lodges, guest houses furnished apartments or any other hospitality services. (Andrews, 2007 , p. 30) For this very reason we see as to why the tourism sector at most instance are in tie up with major hotels and accommodation providers and also with tour and traveler providers and thus boosting the growth of global tourism. Above all, it should not be forgotten that the hospitality industry is a huge employer, when compared and contrasted in context of the industry at large. Employment opportunities in the backdrop of booming global to urism and increasing and mushrooming international business provide a huge avenue for fresh graduate and those who are specially trained in the hospitality management aspects. Hospitality Industry in UAE According to reports, it states that the hotel industry in UAE and in particular to its Trucial state Dubai is very competitive. Dubai and UAE in particular defines the landmark for all kinds of luxuries. Hence, when it comes to hotel industry, it is not surprising to see that UAE in that regard boast of a huge avenue and booming scenario of Hotel industry. One example of it can be looked in respect of the Dubai Marina Hotel and Resorts that are a delight global travelers and frequent traveler who is in search of luxury. (Boermeester, p. 52) To understand the very component encompassing the hospitality industry in UAE and in particular in Dubai, we feel that observing the development projects in the tourism industry and increasing construction for tourism attraction in recent time can be effective. One example to list in that regard can be looked in respect of the Palm Spring Island, and the Burj Al Arab Hotel that was opened and operated since 2009, and boast itself with a seven star class, and which we proclaims to one amongst the luxurious hotel on the global scale. (Ahmed Hassanien, 2010 , p. 14) Objectives, Scope and coverage This report and its study overall is focused and limited to the ‘hotel industry in general and the discussion in that regard which also covers the hotel industry in UAE in the last 2 years, starting from 2009 to present. We feel that it is also prudent to define the component of this report overall, that is to say the scope and its coverage. The overall discussion relates: To define, extrapolate and examine the features of what defines the hotel industry on a global scale. An extension to list all the viable and recent data related the growth and booming of the hotel industry in UAE, with its concentration in Dubai and Abu Dhabi, which is central to the discussion of this work. In order to reach to this conclusion and the analysis required herein for the basis of this report and the subject matter requirement, we feel that reliable source and data retrieved from the hotel industry would be viable enough, besides other available literature and information that can be retrieved online. Besides information related to the industry in general and that which is related to the hotel industry in UAE also would be helpful enough to assist the completion of this work and the attempt made in that regard. The main aim and objective of this work is to reflect its discussion and analysis on the hotel industry from an economic perspective. Thus, it is only natural that information to be used herein is directly linked to the hotel industry in general and that which gives us an informative points about the hotel industry in UAE in the current scheme of things. For that reason a brief economic analysis as to the growth factor of the hotel industry in UAE and its comparison with the global hotel industry is also a necessity we felt, which will be covered in this report through a literature review and successive, discussion and analysis, which defines the overall objective of this work in order to reach a conclusive conclusion.   Hypothesis/Assumption of the Report We assume that identifying the main issues to be discussed related to the subject matter ‘hotel industry in UAE is also helpful, which the following paragraph relates to. What defines the ‘Hotel Industry in general? Besides, what defines the components of hotel industry? It is assumed that the hotel industry is one of the fastest growing industries, How far this statement stands true? If, so what are the scopes for its growth for the present and future segment of the industry in general, given the current booming of hotel industry on the global scale? What are the attractive features of UAE hotel industry? How far UAE hotel industry has contributed to the growth element of global hospitality industry at large? What employment opportunities do the hotel industry offers, given that service sector is assumed to be the factor that drive the hospitality industry? Considering these assumptions identified above, it should be further clarified that this work and the overall attempts in parts and full thereof is to trace and examine the features of global hotel industry, with its concentration in UAE hotel industry. Methodology and Data For the purpose of this work, the methodology used herein is divided into the primary and secondary resources. Primary Resources: to be correct, there have been very least instance where the primary resources are used in this report. It wont be wrong to say that the primary resource in all aspects is focused within the data, or economic indicator to the growth element of UAE hotel industry that classifies between Abu Dhabi and Dubai which were accessed online and a helpful companion to trace the real economic indicator. Secondary Resources: Inclusive in this report, is the secondary resource being used, namely news and economic reports that is specifically related to UAE and its hotel industry covering a period of 2 years from 2009 till date. Besides, available literature that is related to the hotel industry and its discussion also have been used extensively in order to structure the report and its discussion overall. The combination of the primary and secondary methodology employed herein has been helpful enough for this work and the attempt made in that regard. However, primary resources and its availability posed many limitations. Yet, the economic report has been feasible to close that gap, which helped in completing the report successfully. Data Tabulation: The Economic Aspects of Hotel Industry in UAE From an economic point of identifying the discussion of the hospitality industry and that which is related to UAE, we see that its growth is booming. There are all kinds of hospitality services in UAE, ranging from budget hotels, 2, 3, 5 and 7 Stars hotel. The latest report available with AmeInfo.com, an online news portal, it highlights that increase of revenue from the hotel industry touched the 10% mark till date counting from the start for the financial year 2011. This research was carried out by Deloitte Touch, a global firm with its specialization in global economic research and risk management. (AmeInfo, 2011) This is one of the latest reports. Despite the gloom and decline in hotel industry revenue in the early part of 2009, UAE today is subject to benefit hugely from the rise in global travelling and tourism attraction in the country. News report available with UAE-Interact also states that Abu Dhabi alone have achieved of hotel guest in the first quarter of 2011 to the tun e of 10%, a huge jump from the global slump in 2009-2010. (UAE-Interact, 2011) The following data analysis would be helpful to understand the Hotel Industry in UAE, which is classified between Abu Dhabi, and Dubai growth projection for the financial year 2011. Data Analysis: Abu Dhabi Hotel The number of guest and visitors who lodge in at most of the hotels in Abu Dhabi and its figures is as follows. Number of Guest and Visitor in Abu Dhabi Hotels 510,114 Year/Quarterly Projection Jan-March 2011 Estimates Rise in Percentage 9% for March 2011 Number of Check-In (Emirate Hotels Combined) 180,931 Number of Guest Nights 1.56 million SOURCE:(UAEInteract.com) Data Analysis: Dubai Hotel When it comes to Dubai hotel though, the following is the data. Dubai Hotel growth Projector 7.9% Hotel rooms/Occupancy growth 76.6% for Jan   2011 RevPar(Revenue per available room for 2011) $102.32 Revenue Increase for 2011 2.6% SOURCE: (UAEInteract.com) In Dubai, there are all kinds of flagship hotels, starting with 2, 3, 5 and 7 starts hotel and resorts. The rise in percentage of room occupancy and revenue by a tune of 2.6% for the financial years 2011 is a positive thing we feel. Such increase says analyst is subject to the rise in global travelers and also the tourism boom just after the global economic downturn. (UAEInteract, 2011) Analysis of Results From the above data tabulation and when considering the hotel Industry alone, we feel that the slump from 2009 global down turn is far behind. Hotels industry in Abu Dhabi and in Dubai is projected for huge increase in revenue; check-in. the increase in that regard also shows a positive development scope. If the indication of the report is anything to go by, we feel that growth projection in the hotel industry in UAE is tremendously huge. The AHIC (Arabian Hotel Investment Conference) 2011 that was held recently also take a stock of the matter of the economic aspects of the hotel industry in UAE. As per the said news reports, it states that the main ingredient for hotel industry in UAE is set to follow within the path of asset management and diversification of product, as   a means and measure to meet the global demand of the hotel industry in UAE. Starting from the year from January 2001 till date, occupancy rate have jumped to 24.1%. This is one of the dramatic developments in the hotel industry in UAE.   In addition, the RevPer (revenue as per available room) for UAE hotel industry also has increased from a mere US$92.46 in 2010 to US$102.32 in 2011. (TTG-Mena, 2011) Rounding our analysis to the above tabular data and in particular to the new report, we feel that UAE hotel industry is heading for a smooth and dramatic recover from the slump it suffered in 2009 global economic downturn. It is not surprising to see the growth, since UAE is known to attract global travelers and businesses for the sheer element attached to its hotel industry. For that matter, UAE today is seen as global destination for all kinds of global events, be it business conference and the likes. Moreover, huge capital investment in UAE in the realms of transportation and infrastructural development of hotels presents an interesting side of the overall story as far as Hotel industry in UAE in concerned. Conclusion From our brief fragmented analysis, we can round up that Hotel industry in UAE is not a mere object to think about. Since the 2009 global economic downturn, UAE have recovered dramatically in all sector of the economy. It is also being observed that hotel industry dont lack far behind in recovery. The UAE government and its initiative to increase and create awareness about various programs, and back-to-back conference that are held in the country as well as tourism development programs and its development have been specific to contribute towards the growth of Hotel/Hospitality industry in UAE. The above analysis which we have defined the very basis of revenue earning for hotels and number of guest and nights stays are some examples of the economic aspects that is generated from visitors who often prefer coming to UAE for all the luxury treatment and preference of 5 and 7 star accommodation. UAE we can conclude presents ‘once in a lifetime opportunity for global globe trotters and business men, who are often seen heading to UAE for all kinds of conferences. To top it all, UAE also boast of major hotels. There are also major tourist attractions in the UAE such as the palm island. Increased infrastructural development and investment made in that regard is positive step taken by UAE government, a actor which also have boost its hotel industry and the national economy besides contributing directly and indirectly to the global economy and hotel industry.

Mechanical design systems :: essays research papers

PROBLEM STATEMENT:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The design is to engineer a drive system to operate two extrusion rolls in opposite directions to compress the caramel. The drive system consists of a flexible drive system that operates a spur gear drive, which in turn operates the extrusion rolls at equal and opposite speeds. The power source to this design is a five horse power normal torque AC electric motor, operating at 1160 rpm. The system must be designed to run 24 hours per day, 3 days per week. There will be 4 shafts is the drive system. The shaft that is being driven by the flexible drive system directly is to be called shaft A, for design reference. The extrusion rolls shafts are to be called shaft B1 and B2, for design reference. The last shaft C is in the system only to reverse the direction of rotation of one of the extrusion roll shafts. The speed of shaft A is to be determined by the designer. The speed of the extrusion rolls is to be 200 rpm. When designing this drive system calculate all forces, life expectancies and stresses for both systems. The centerline distance from motor shaft to shaft A is to be 72 inches. 2 DESIGN DECISIONS:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  While designing this multiple drive system there are many decisions to be made in order to successfully design the system according to the problem statement. The first is deciding whether to use a belt drive or a chain drive; one would realize that the system is operating at fairly low speed so a chain would be ideal. The next step to designing this system is to consider and analyze a speed for shaft A. Factors must be considered while deciding the speed of shaft A. The factors are that the speed of shaft A should be high enough so that the speed ratio of the gears is large enough, so that the gear sizes make a large enough distance between extrusion rolls. When designing this system one would choose around 480 rpm. Using the rpm out of the flexible drive one would select the appropriate gears for the application. Which the designer will find is a difficult task considering contact stress. When choosing the proper chain size and sprockets one will find that a numb er 40, 19 tooth â€Å"n1† and a 45 tooth â€Å"n2† are optimal stock components and get you fairly close to the desired 480 rpm.

identity article :: essays research papers

YOU ARE YOU Identities can be lost and found, despite their importance and significance. ANGIE SHUM reports on the changes that many people may experience and a guide to help prevent it.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Crà ¨me brà »lee can never be jello, YOU can never be jello.† When Julia Roberts stated this line to the vulnerable Cameron Diaz, in â€Å"My Best Friend’s Wedding†, she wasn’t criticising the pros and cons of food, she was conveying her opinion on being yourself. Crà ¨me brà »lee – a rich dessert containing chilled, custard with a caramelised topping, creating a delicious flavour as the smooth, creamy texture melts in your mouth. Jello – clear, bright, floppy and sweet or better known as jelly. How can crà ¨me brà »lee even be compared to jello? Crà ¨me brà »lee is crà ¨me brà »lee and jello is jello. Just like these desserts, humans should stick to being who they are. In spite of this many humans tend to be persuaded into the unfortunate direction of changing themselves to suit the needs and interests of others. Princess Fiona, from Shrek strived to be the perfect princess that any knight in shining armour would dream of. However, she was hiding a deep, dark secret – an ogre. Princess Fiona was in fact an ogre and she was hiding this side of her because she thought others would think she was ugly and repulsive. Nevertheless, Shrek, another ogre, discovered her inner beauty. Beauty that was far beyond appearances. As Helen Keller once said: â€Å"The best and most beautiful things in the world cannot be seen, nor touched†¦but are felt in the heart.† Changing yourself to impress others cannot only lead you to embarrassment, but it can also be a simple approach for flushing your own personality down the toilet. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689–1762) once stated, â€Å"I despise the pleasure of pleasing people that I despise.† Most reasons people transform themselves are due to lack of self-esteem and yes, the big â€Å"J† word. JEALOUSY. This emotion may also lead to despising others and even hatred. So, in order to claim back your esteem, you attempt to be better than them. That is in terms of, looks, intelligence and personality, which then leads to competition with others. It’s very important for people to recognise their own identity and to grasp the importance of it. A perfect example of this is in the poem â€Å"Portrait† by Judith Wright. This poem gives a brief insight into a stereotypical woman’s► identity through a third person.

Process Journal :: Papers

For our set text we were given the play Mrs Warrens Profession. For our choice of scene we chose scene four, the last act because the scene contains the right amount of characters for our group of four. Also the ending scene is the climax of the entire play and is full of action, we felt that the last scene was complete with comedy and romance, tension and emotion and our group felt that this scene would hold the audiences attention well. In staging the set text scene we needed to show the office environment, so we used two tables and a few chairs as in the stage instructions, and we used props such as books and papers, and a pen in an ink holder to show the time that the play was set. We were only allowed five lighting changes in total, so our group decided to keep the lighting the same to allow for more in our devised scene. The warm, yellow light suited the topics being discussed at the beginning of the scene, going to Italy and beauty and romance, but if we had unlimited changes I would have had the lighting slowly change to a harsher less yellow light when I entered, to show trouble and set the mood, and then again when Frank and Praed left to increase the tension. When we first read through the set text, we played around with different elements of the characters, emphasizing areas and changing voices and tones of voice, and exaggerating characters to then point of humour. This was in order to explore my character fully and find out as much as I could about my interpretation of how Mrs Warren thought and acted. From this and exploring the text thoroughly I found that my character, Mrs Warren was a strong character and firm in her

The Concept of Omoiyari (Altruistic Sensitivity) in Japanese Relational Communication

Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara The Concept of Omoiyari (Altruistic Sensitivity) in Japanese Relational Communication Kazuya Hara, Meikai University, Japan Abstract It is essential to explore Japanese concepts in Japanese languages as intellectual tools for future studies in Asia. In order to develop Asian theories of communication, therefore, Asian communication scholars ought to engage in this important task.This paper presents such an attempt by conceptualizing the concept of omoiyari for a Japanese theory of relational communication. In social psychology, the Japanese concept of omoiyari has been examined in terms of altruism, sympathy, empathy, and prosocial behavior, and a variety of cognitive models of prosocial behavior arousal have been proposed. In the field of communication studies, however, the concept of omoiyari has not attracted much scholarly attention, although aspects of harmonius Japanese communication are well documented.By synthesizing the rel evant literature on omoiyari across disciplines, then, this paper formulates a definition of omoiyari for Japanese communication research, lays out its basic assumptions, and characterizes it in light of four major semantic areas of omoiyari: (1) prayer, (2) encouragement, (3) help, and (4) support. Introduction â€Å"Cast your bread upon the waters and it will return to you. † –a saying reflecting omoiyari When Japanese people feel another’s kindness toward them and see someone’s warm-hearted feelings, thoughts, and behaviors, they appreciate that person’s omoiyari.The primary meaning of omoiyari is â€Å"an individual’s sensitivity to imagine another’s feelings and personal affairs, including his or her circumstances† (Shinmura, 1991, p. 387, translated by Hara). Omoiyari has attracted non-Japanese scholars’ attention as one of the most important ideas in Japanese cultural value and communication (e. g. , Lebra, 1976; Travis, 1998; Wierzbicka, 1997). The word omoiyari is often seen on signs bearing a school motto and at police stations. In many surveys of public opinion, Japanese people have listed omoiyari as a key concept on which they put high value.Although omoiyari -based behavior and activity are seen across cultures, Japanese people are the ones who put the highest value on omoiyari all over the world (Kikuchi, 1988; Akanuma, 2004). This humane omoiyari concept has been emphasized in moral education at schools in Japan as the guiding principle to communicate with others (Ito, 1998a; 1998b). In educational psychology in Japan, the importance of omoiyari has been emphasized with its developmental views of children (e. g. , Kikuchi, 1988).Recent inhumane crimes such as ill-treatment bullying or indiscriminate murder on the street are caused by the lack of omoiyari, and the importance of omoiyari has undergone a reevaluation in terms of education in the schools (Kanno, 1988). Psychological asp ects of omoiyari such as empathy and sympathy have been studied, 24 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara and its behavior has been studied as prosocial behavior, altruistic behavior, and helping behavior in social psychology (e. . , Harada, 1991; Kikuchi, 1998; Matsui, 1991). Although the term â€Å"omoiyari behavior† is not generally used as a technical term in social psychology (Matsui, 1991), the titles of several studies on these concepts are comprehensively translated into Japanese using the word omoiyari (e. g. , Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989; Hoffman, 2001; Jones, 1993). Additionally, cultural psychologists Uchida and Kitayama (2001) developed a measurement scale of omoiyari from the viewpoint of sympathy.In the field of communication studies, although aspects of harmonious communication have been well-researched, only a few studies have focused on omoiyari as an important factor of Japanese harmonious communication. For example, Donahue (1998) argues that om oiyari is a psychological factor in Japanese indirect communication. In health communication, Kakai (2002) argues that Japanese prefer ambiguity or not disclosing of cancer to their family members. Behind such indirect communication and style is the psychological and cultural background of omoiyari.These studies refer to the study on Japanese empathy by anthropologist Lebra (1976) and her definition and observation of omoiyari. Although previous studies have contributed to pointing out the importance of omoiyari in Japanese mental culture and behavioral culture, there are three points to be further considered. First, many psychological studies based on Western concepts have not proposed clear conceptual definitions of omoiyari, so there is no consensus on its definition.Second, studies on omoiyari in other fields have only argued one aspect of omoiyari with its case contexts; we might be able to explore multi-aspects of omoiyari, taking various communication contexts and levels into consideration. Third, negative aspects of omoiyari have not been referred to adequately in previous studies on omoiyari. For example, there are cases when omoiyari toward others might not be appreciated or accepted by others. In order to develop future studies on omoiyari in Japanese communication, this paper attempts to concisely conceptualize Japanese omoiyari across disciplines.Additionally, the author believes that it is essential to explore Japanese concepts in Japanese languages as intellectual tools for future studies in Asia. In this paper, first, the author will review the relevant concepts in Western psychology which have been argued as omoiyari in Japan. Then, he will articulate Japanese omoiyari with its translation, definition, and major characteristics. Finally, using a diagram, he will propose four semantic areas of omoiyari, taking its communication levels and contexts into consideration.Omoiyari and Its Relevant Concepts The idea of omoiyari has been argued from th e standpoint of the concepts of altruism, sympathy, empathy and prosocial behavior. Although the causal developmental relationship among these concepts is controversial (e. g. , Eisenberg, 1986; Hoffman, 1982; Toi & Baston, 1982), each concept in itself has been regarded as one aspect of omoiyari in Japanese social psychology and communication studies. This means that these concepts are seen as elements of omoiyari, and conversely that omoiyari can be conceptualized with a combination of these concepts.The foundation of omoiyari feelings can be covered with the concept of altruism. Altruism is other-oriented and self-sacrificial (Kerbs, 1975). According to Cohen (1978), altruism refers to an act or desire to offer something gratuitously to others when needed. Cohen indicates that there are three components of altruism: (a) giving, or the desire to do so; (b) empathy; and (c) the absence of any motives of reward from doing the altruistic behavior. 25 Intercultural Communication Studi es XV: 1 2006 Hara Essentially, altruism lies in the motivation to help others and to aid others in their behavior.As this conceptual definition shows, altruism is the source that produces more concrete omoiyari feelings and behavior. Based on altruism, omoiyari seems to comprise both sympathy and empathy (e. g. , Kikuchi, 1991, 1998; Matsui, 1991). Sympathy refers to a concern for another person, agreement with and consideration for the feelings of others, or compassion (DeVito, 1986). It is generally conceived as a reaction to particular contexts such as the sadness or disappointment of others. Another view is that sympathy refers to a feeling for another person, while empathy refers to actually feeling as that person does (DeVito, 1986).Empathy in omoiyari is described in Bruneau’s (1995) definition as â€Å"‘feeling into’ another’s feelings with one’s own, vicariously, and attempting to achieve some I-thou congruence† (p. 87). Empathy imp lies understanding of others through imagining the situation of others (Travis, 1998). Psychological aspects of altruism, empathy, and sympathy are reflected in prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior generally refers to â€Å"voluntary actions that are intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals† (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989, p. 3).Wispe (1972) suggests that prosocial behavior refers to behaviors that can be described as sympathetic, altruistic, charitable, and so on. Furthermore, prosocial behavior benefits others without anticipating external rewards, and is done under the conditions that it is done either for its own end, or as an act of restitution (Bar-Tal, 1976). Also, as Bar-Tal argues, prosocial behavior should not be carried out as a result of external threat, enforcement, or obligation, but should be due to an individual’s freedom to decide to act in a certain manner or not.Reviewing altruism, empathy, sympathy, and prosocial behavior in human communication, on the basis of altruism, people seem to have feelings of either empathy or sympathy at the stage of intrapersonal communication. Additionally, in the context of communication activities with others, when such feelings are seen in behavior, the behavior is regarded as prosocial behavior. As the findings in Uchida and Kitayama’s (2001) survey indicate, omoiyari as sympathy had a positive relationship with emotional empathy and prosocial behavior. The combination f these concepts seems to help conceptualize aspects of omoiyari. However, since each concept cannot individually cover omoiyari in a comprehensive sense, we need a conceptual definition of omoiyari before applying these concepts to aspects of omoiyari. The Concept of Japanese Omoiyari In Japanese communication, it is often seen that people say â€Å"show omoiyari toward others† when a person does not do so. The word omoiyari is directed toward anybody of the same generation and status, o r toward younger people with regard to both in-group and out-group members.To say â€Å"have omoiyari† to elderly people, on the other hand, sounds arrogant, although the person is thinking â€Å"omoiyari† in his or her mind. In such a situation, it seems appropriate to use the word â€Å"itawari†(caring consideration with respect) instead, even though the person has the word â€Å"omoiyari† in his or her mind. In this section, the author attempts to propose an expedient translation of omoiyari into English which is comprehensible to both Japanese and non-Japanese people. Then, the author will define omoiyari in Japanese communication.Translation of Omoiyari into English It is impossible to translate Japanese omoiyari into English with one word or phrase 26 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara which is comprehensible to both Japanese and non-Japanese people. Even words such as compassion, consideration, thoughtfulness, mercy, and benevolenc e cover only one aspect of Japanese omoiyari. There seem to be two reasons for this difficulty. First, there are different views of omoiyari across cultures.For example, Yamagishi (1995) argues that for Westerners, omoiyari is not â€Å"thoughtfulness† to others, which is occasionally perceived to be unnecessarily imposed by others depriving one’s own right to choose his/her own behavior. Easterners, on the other hand, believe that thoughtfulness-based omoiyari is essential to living a group-oriented life. Secondly, as Travis (1998) points out, English words such as â€Å"considerate† and â€Å"thoughtful,† which are related to omoiyari, do not involve the same kind of â€Å"intuitive† understanding. This intuitive way of communication is also cultivated as intuitive listening and empathic understanding inJapanese ways of communication (Barnland, 1975). As for a neutral and comprehensible translation term, Yamagishi (1995) points out that â€Å"se nsitivity† can represent the feelings of omoiyari that are common to Westerners and Easterners and which do not have the connotation of imposing one’s thought on others. Therefore, in this paper, the author uses his own tentative and expedient translation of omoiyari as â€Å"altruistic sensitivity† taking the definition of altruism, â€Å"concern for the happiness and welfare of other people rather than for your own † (Sinclair, 1987, p. 2) into consideration, regarding altruism as the psychological foundation to produce omoiyari-based feelings such as empathy or sympathy. Defining Omoiyari Omoi in omoiyari means considerate caring for others, while yari is the noun form of the verb yaru, which means sending something to others. Therefore, â€Å"omoiyari † literally means sending one’s altruistic feelings to others. The difference among omoiyari, empathy, and sympathy is that omoiyari implies intuitive understanding and includes behaving in that way (Shinmura, 1991; Travis, 1998; Uchida & Kitayama, 2001).Consideration toward others is not always received, and omoiyari does not expect any reward. If any reward is expected, it is not omoiyari but business-like helping behavior. One of the definitions of omoiyari which is frequently referred to is the one by cultural anthropologist Lebra (1976), which describes omoiyari as â€Å"the ability and willingness to feel what others are feeling, to vicariously experience the pleasure or pain that they are undergoing, and to help them satisfy their wishes†¦without being told verbally†(p. 38).Historical anthropologist Akanuma (2004) states that omoiyari is to guess others’ feelings and pay careful attention to their feelings, accepting what has happened (or will happen) to others as what has happened (or will happen) to myself. Social psychologist Ninomiya (1991) defines omoiyari as voluntary behavior for others’ benefit. The common assumptions underlying all these definitions are that omoiyari is voluntary and that people put high value on sharing feelings with others. As such, intuitive understanding is necessary.In this study, the author will define omoiyari as an intuitive understanding of others’ feelings that will occasionally lead us to conceive what to do or what not to do to others. Taking the conceptual issues of omoiyari into consideration, the author will further argue major characteristics of omoiyari in the following section. Major Characteristics of Omoiyari To have a sense of omoiyari and to behave with omoiyari are regarded as ideal communication in Japanese society. For example, according to a survey by the Ministry of 27 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 HaraEducation in Japan cited in the Yomiuri-shimbun (1994), elementary and junior high school teachers in Japan answered that they put the highest value on omoiyari in moral education. Additionally, in a survey on child-birth in Japan by the Yo miuri-shimbun (2005), 86. 7% of the parents expected their children to be a child with omoiyari. As these data show, to have omoiyari is essential in Japanese relational communication across contexts. In this section, the author will begin to argue major characteristics of omoiyari based on its psychological, behavioral aspects, along with the assumptions of omoiyari in previous studies.Then negative aspects of omoiyari will be briefly mentioned. Finally, four context-based semantic areas of omoiyari in human communication will be proposed. Psychological Aspects of Omoiyari Omoiyari has been considered altruistic feelings or emotional participation in others’ mindds (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989; Kikuchi, 1988), and there are three characteristics which occasionally lead to actual prosocial behavior. The first is that omoiyari does not include the concept of â€Å"otherness† (Akanuma, 2004). This means that omoiyari means to understand the other’s feelings, not taki ng one’s self-concept into consideration (Otsuka, 1991).In this assumption, there is a Japanese interpersonal view that puts high value on oneness with others. For example, Hamaguchi (1985) argues that Japanese people think that since affectionate mutual aid is essential, people should read mutual true intention, and the relationship once established must be respected as valuable. Oneness with others gets reinforced through mutual omoiyari. The second is that omiyari is neither based on pity from superiority nor on mechanistic give-and-take relations (Otsuka, 1991).The motivation of omoiyari is voluntary, and does not expect gratitude from others (Kikuchi, 1991). If a person expects any reward when they help others, that is not omoiyari. Such a reward-expecting behavior will not be respected but rather despised, and is against the virtue of omoiyari. The third is that the value of omoiyari is evaluated based on purity of consideration of others. It goes without saying that th e purer the consideration is, the more appreciated it is. However, such pure consideration of others occasionally contradicts its behavior.A commonly cited example is that physicians and family members are reluctant to directly disclose terminal diagnoses to patients because of omoiyari (Kakai 2001; Paton & Wicks, 1996). Such communication, which might be regarded as deception, will not be criticized by others because they know the family’s true feelings. Behind this type of communication, there is an unspoken assumption that true and honest feelings will be understood by others even though one’s behavior contradicts his or her psychological feelings. Behavioral Aspects of Omoiyari Omoiyari in behavior has been studied as prosocial behavior in social psychology.Kikuchi (1998) provides four common characteristics of omoiyari based on its psychological assumptions. The first is that omoiyari as prosocial behavior includes the idea of an action which is helpful for others . However, this does not necessarily mean that the prosocial behavior will be willingly accepted by others. The second is that omoiyari as true prosocial behavior is not done with the expectation of a reward from others. This is not a matter of whether a person receives or rejects a reward, but rather the premise that the person had no desire to receive a reward in the first place.The third is that omoiyari-based prosocial behavior is accompanied by a kind of cost or risk of self-sacrifice. The final condition is that omoiyari as prosocial behavior 28 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara should be voluntary. This means that a person is not bound by any sense of duty to others, but is willing to behave prosocially as a choice. Japanese omoiyari behavior is uniquely seen in conflicting situations. For example, it is often stated that Japanese prefer to avoid conflict rather than to try to resolve it. In such a situation, the Japanese are inclined to use mbiguous or euph emistic expressions with their bokashi (ambiguous) logic (Nayayama, 1986), and to use honne (true intentions) and tatemae (public principles) properly (Doi, 1985) so as not to hurt others’ feelings. Such a linguistic feature can be described as â€Å"the language of omoiyari,† and it is listener-oriented (Ando, 1986). Even to enemies, they do not tend to deliver a fatal blow. Such communication styles are represented in proverbs such as teki ni shio wo okuru (to show humanity even to one’s enemy) or bushi no nasake (samurai-like mercy). Omoiyari, however, is not always performed desirably.In the following section, negative aspects of omoiyari will be mentioned with cases that are against its psychological and behavioral assumptions. Negative Aspects of Omoiyari Omoiyari does not always function as we hope. For example, overly imposing omoiyari on others might be a psychological burden or, even worse, an annoyance. This is called osekkai (meddlesome) and is the a ntithesis of empathetic understanding (Lebra, 1976). Especially when the elderly want to meddle in younger people’s affairs, the younger people cannot say â€Å"Please mind on your business. This type of omoiyari could be considered osekkai. In the worst case scenario, when omoiyari is not accepted by the receiver as the source expected, the source might blame the receiver in his or her mind. This is called sakaurami (to think ill of a person who meant to be kind). At the point when the source feels sakaurami, however, his or her kindness to others is no longer regarded as omoiyari. Four Context-Based Semantic Areas of Omoiyari in Human Communication As argued above, omoiyari consists of both affective aspects (altruism, sympathy, empathy) and a behavioral one (prosocial behavior).Using these concepts, the author will attempt to conceptualize four semantic areas of omoiyari. The following figure representing the four areas of omoiyari is based on intrapersonal communication (Areas A and B) and interactive level (Areas C & D). [See next page. ] The fundamental assumption is that Area A and Area B are at the level of intrapersonal communication and cover one’s cognitive and affective aspects. Area C covers the interaction stemming from Area A, and Area D covers the interaction stemming from Area B. Area A and Area C are based on sympathy, while Area B and Area D are based on empathy.Every feeling and behavior by a communicator is based on altruism and with intuition. Area A is the situation where a person is worrying abut someone’s undesirable situation and praying that it will be improved. The feeling is based on altruism and sympathy. In this context, examples such as praying for the recovery of another’s health or sympathizing with the struggle of others are included. In contrast, in Area B, the communicator has a feeling of encouragement in his or her mind, and the feeling is based on altruism and empathy.For example, praying for the success or health of others is included in this area. Area C and Area D cover people’s behavioral aspects in their relational communication and social activities. In these areas, verbal and nonverbal interaction is exchanged, and helping behavior is added when necessary. Area C, which stems from the psychological feelings of Area A, stands for prosocial behavior based on altruism and sympathy. 29 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara Communication activities such as helping behavior or volunteer activities are included in this area.Also, Area D, which stems from the psychological feelings of Area B, is based on altruism and empathy, and includes situations such as supporting other people’s success with one’s own will or participating in activities to share happiness with others. Prosocial Behavior Area C: Help Area D: Support Sympathy – – – – Area A: Prayer Intuition –––– Empathy Area B: Encouragement Altruism Figure 1. Four Context-Based Semantic Areas of Omoiyari in Human Communication Concluding Remarks The primary purpose of this essay was to onceptualize Japanese omoiyari (altruistic sensitivity) with its psychological and behavioral characteristics, and to propose four types of omoiyari (prayer, encouragement, help, and support) from the viewpoint of communication. Although the author was only able to review a portion of the previous literature on omoiyari, he hopes that the essence of omoiyari conceptualized in this paper will contribute to further studies of Japanese relational communication. Based on the conceptualization in this paper, the author expects future studies to be conducted in three areas.First, various communication styles in each of the four semantic areas of omoiyari (prayer, encouragement, help, and support) should be further examined and discussed. Secondly, the possibility of combining these four areas should be further examined using empi rical studies. 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